The Environmental Studies Journal(TESJ) Vol.8, No.2, pp 1 – 23; April 2026
Water Footprint, Urban Heat Island and Environmental and Human Health in the South-South Geopolitical Zone of Nigeria
1Eneji, Chris-Valentine Ogar, 2Isa Magaji Azare , 1Okang, Etta Asim
3Ogar Brendan John & 3Joseph Linus Udoh,
Department of Environmental Education, Faculty of Science Education,
University of Calabar, Nigeria; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9958-4082,
vcogareneji@gmail.com; vcogareneji@unical.edu.ng
okangetasim@unical.edu.ng
Dept. of Environmental Science, Federal University Dutse, Jigawa State, Nigeria
Dept. of Education Geography and Sustainable Development Studies, Faculty of
Arts and Social Science Education, University of Calabar, Nigeria
ogarbrendan@unical.edu.ng
https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2205-8883
Corresponding author: vcogareneji@gmail.com; vcogareneji@unical.edu.ng
The study specifically investigated the causes of Urban Heat Island, the effecsts of water footprint on environmental sustainability, the environmental and health implications of Urban Heat Island, and the relationship between urbanization and temperature increase. The study adopted a survey and correlational research design. A sample of 1,200 respondents was selected from six major urban centers in Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, and Rivers States using stratified and simple random sampling techniques. Data were collected through questionnaires, field observations, interviews, temperature measurements, and GIS evidence. Descriptive statistics, percentages, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation were used for data analysis at the 0.05 level of significance. Findings revealed that vegetation loss (81%), increasing concrete surfaces (76%), industrialization, traffic congestion, oil exploration, and infrastructural expansion are the major causes of Urban Heat Island in the region. Correlation analysis showed a significant relationship between water footprint and environmental sustainability (r = 0.600, p < 0.05), indicating that increasing water demand and pollution significantly affect environmental quality. The study also found a strong positive relationship between urbanization and temperature increase (r = 0.765, p < 0.05), confirming that urban growth contributes substantially to thermal stress. Major environmental effects identified include air pollution, flooding, biodiversity loss, poor water quality, and environmental degradation. Health implications include heat stress, respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular complications, dehydration, fatigue, and sleep disorders. The study concludes that Urban Heat Island and unsustainable water utilization are critical environmental and public health challenges in the South-South region. It recommends urban greening, sustainable water management, climate-sensitive planning, pollution control, and strengthened environmental governance to enhance ecological sustainability and public health resilience.
Keywords: Water Footprint, Urban Heat Island, Environmental Sustainability, Human Health, Urbanization, Climate Change, South-South Nigeria.